#271 The End of History? (1989)

Author: Francis Fukuyama
Title: The End of History?
Genre: Essay
Year: 1989
Pages: 20
Origin: read on the Kindle
Nod Rating: 3 nods out of 5

 

 

‘IN WATCHING the flow of events over the past decade or so, it is hard to avoid the feeling that something very fundamental has happened in world history. The past year has seen a flood of articles commemorating the end of the Cold War, and the fact that "peace" seems to be breaking out in many regions of the world. Most of these analyses lack any larger conceptual framework for distinguishing between what is essential and what is contingent or accidental in world history, and are predictably superficial. If Mr. Gorbachev were ousted from the Kremlin or a new Ayatollah proclaimed the millennium from a desolate Middle Eastern capital, these same commentators would scramble to announce the rebirth of a new era of conflict.’

So writes Francis Fukuyama. As the Cold War came to an end the old certainties were being bulldozed down. A new world had come into being, with the former ideas – political and social – being swept away. These vast changes led Francis Fukuyama to pen an influential essay, The End of History?.

Fukuyama’s essential point is that with the collapse of the Soviet Union has come the overwhelming triumph of liberal ideals, principally from the western democracies (USA and western Europe). He argues that these ideals indicate an end point of humanity’s progress and evolution, from ancient civilisation, across the feudalism of medieval times, towards the capitalism employed today. As he states:

‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalisation of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’

Gone, then, is communism, socialism and other theories. But, how well as Fukuyama’s essay held up over the past quarter of a century? Clearly, western liberal ideals remain dominant. Testament to this is the continuing superpower status of the United States of America, as well as the rapid growth of the European Union. But then again, cracks are apparent, particularly in the form of the current banking crisis. Furthermore, other ideals have taken a sharp focus, principally that of Islamic fundamentalism. Also, recent developments – such as the Russian seizure of Ukraninan land – flies in the face of the western democratic style. And this is without mentioning the new superpower, China, and how this will shape political relations in the decades ahead.

Of most striking note is the central belief that history never ends; history is spewed forth in a multitidue of events every single day. Fukuyama’s central argument that western liberal values indicate the end point of human development is a stunted one, especially when one considers the vast changes that have occurred in the last two hundreds alone, let alone the past thousand. The twenty-first century promises to bring more changes with it, especially within the sphere of technology. Political situations will continue to change and history will never end. But historical theories and statements – however odd and misguided (of which Fukuyama’s is not) – will continue to be spouted off by commentators and historians.

Read it here

#247 Inside the Whale and Other Essays (1962)

Author: George Orwell
Title: Inside the Whale and Other Essays
Genre: Essays
Year: 1962
Pages: 200
Origin: bought in a charity shop for £1.49
Nod Rating: 4 nods out of 5

 
This volume was read during a visit to hospital during October 2013. Having spotted the book, the nurse referenced George Orwell, all of which led to a fruitful discussion. All of this confirms Orwell’s place as one of Britain’s most popular and thought-provoking authors. George Orwell is predominately celebrated as a novelist: a man of ideas and fiction. However, the Worm has recently been turning to his other talent: a man of ideas within the essay format.

This book – Inside the Whale and Other Essays – brings together an exciting and eclectic selection of Orwell’s essays. The title essay, ‘Inside the Whale’, was initially published in 1940, whilst a later edition – printed in 1957 and later under its current title in 1962 – included a vast sprawl of essays. These range from ‘Politics and the English Language’ (previously reviewed by the Worm), ‘Shooting an Elephant’ to an analysis about the impact of Boys Weeklies.

The title essay is a review of English literature in the preceding twenty years (concentrating on the 1920s and 1930s). Orwell bemoans the lack of change in writing style or content, the lack of any real authorial voice in fiction. However, his writing – its impact and sobering effect – is witnessed in other sections. These include ‘Down the Mine’ – taken from The Road to Wigan Pier – what with its outlining of the life of a miner and his arduous journey to and from work; ‘England Your England’ with its observation of the Second World War and what it means for the British people; ‘Shooting an Elephant’ which describes Orwell’s previous life as a policeman in Burma and how he was forced to kill an elephant in order to appear dominant and brave to the locals (‘I often wondered whether any of the others grasped that I had done it solely to avoid looking a fool’); whilst ‘Boys’ Weeklies’ is an odd conclusion to the book, but one that manages to captivate the reader, with its suggestion that such magazines were propagating conservative characteristics held by a different class in a different age.

Orwell is on biting form in ‘Politics and the English Language’ and ‘The Prevention of Literature’. Echoing themes from his seminal novel Nineteen Eighteen-Four, he discusses the freedom of thought and how the contemporary political mood can easily take control. The Worm has previously pondered ‘Politics and the English Language’ at longer length (read the review here).

His turn of phrase, the weaving together of words wrapped in the brutal truth is what makes Orwell such a captivating writer. In ‘Inside the Whale’ he attacks fellow writers who accept the situation of their surroundings: ‘To say “I accept” in an age like our own is to say that you accept concentration camps, rubber truncheons, Hitler, Stalin, bombs, aeroplanes, tinned food, machine guns, putsches, purges, slogans, Bedaux belts, gas masks, submarines, spies, provocateurs, press censorship, secret prisons, aspirins, Hollywood films, and political murders.’ In ‘Down the Mine’ he links coal – the unknown substance – to making the world go round: ‘In order that Hitler may march the goose-step, that the Pope may denounce Bolshevism, that the cricket crowds may assemble at Lords that the poets may scratch one another’s backs, coal has got to be forthcoming. But on the whole we are not aware of it.’ Whilst the beginning of ‘England Your England’ makes a sobering impression: ‘As I write, highly civilized human beings are flying overhead, trying to kill me.’

Inside the Whale and Other Essays is full of enjoyable, eye-opening debate. It sets Orwell out as an essayist and thinker of social issues, as well as prominent novelist. Having come to the end of the read the Worm was full of longing: O, how we could use you now, Mr Orwell.

Buy it here